Taoism - from psychology to ritual and folklore

Tao (pronounced “Dow”) can be roughly translated into English as path, or the way. It is basically indefinable. It has to be experienced. It refers to a power, which envelops, surrounds and flows through all things, living and non-living. The Tao regulates natural processes and nourishes balance in the Universe. It embodies the harmony of opposites (i.e. there would be no love without hate, no light without dark, no male without female).

The founder of Taoism is believed by many to be Lao-Tse (604-531 BCE), a contemporary of Confucius. He was searching for a way that would avoid the constant feudal warfare and other conflicts that disrupted society during his lifetime. The result was his book: ‘Tao-te-Ching’ (a.k.a. Daodejing). Others believe that he is a mythical character.

Taoism started as a combination of psychology and philosophy but evolved into a religious faith in 440 CE when it was adopted as a state religion. At that time Lao-Tse became popularly venerated as a deity. Taoism, along with Buddhism and Confucianism, became one of the three great religions of China. With the end of the Ch'ing Dynasty in 1911, state support for Taoism ended. Much of the Taoist heritage was destroyed during the next period of warlordism. After the Communist victory in 1949, religious freedom was severely restricted. During the Cultural Revolution in China from 1966 to 1976, much of the remaining Taoist heritage was destroyed. Some religious tolerance has been restored under Deng Xiao-ping from 1982 to the present time.

Taoism currently has about 20 million followers, and is primarily centred in Taiwan. Taoism has had a significant impact though on Western cultures in areas of acupuncture, herbalism, holistic medicine, meditation and martial arts.

There is a long history of involvement by Taoists in various exercise and movement techniques. Tai Chi in particular works on all parts of the body. It stimulates the central nervous system, lowers blood pressure, relieves stress and gently tones muscles without strain. It also enhances digestion, elimination of wastes and the circulation of blood. Moreover, Tai Chi's rhythmic movements massage the internal organs and improve their functionality. Traditional Chinese medicine teaches that illness is caused by blockages or lack of balance in the body's “chi” (intrinsic energy). Tai Chi is believed to balance this energy flow.

Yin Yang is perhaps the most widely recognisable Taoist symbol. It represents the balance of opposites in the universe. When they are equally present, all is calm. When one is outweighed by the other, there is confusion and disarray. There are a number of different explanations regarding the derivation of Yin Yang. One explains that it comes from astronomical observations, which recorded the shadow of the sun throughout a full year. The two swirling shapes inside the symbol give the impression of change -- the only constant factor in the universe. One tradition states that Yin (or Ying; the dark side) represents the breath that formed the earth. Yang (the light side) symbolises the breath that formed the heavens.

The most traditional view is that ‘yin’ represents aspects of the feminine: being soft, cool, calm, introspective, and healing... and “yang” the masculine: being hard, hot, energetic, moving, and sometimes aggressive. Another view has the ‘yin’ representing night and ‘yang’ day.

Another source offers a different definition: A common misconception in the west is that Yin is soft and passive and Yang is hard and energetic. Really it is Yang that is soft and Yin that is hard, this is because Yang is energetic and Yin is passive. Yin is like a rock and Yang is like water or air, rock is heavy and hard and air is soft and energetic.

The Yin and Yang can also be described as negative and positive energy poles. The ideograms indicate the sunny and shady sides of a hill. They are associated with the masculine and the feminine, the firm and the yielding, the strong and the weak, the light and the dark, the rising and the falling, heaven and earth, and they are even recognised in such everyday matters as cooking as the spicy and the bland.

However, since nothing in nature is purely black or purely white, the symbol includes a small black spot in the white swirl, and a corresponding white spot in the black swirl.

Ultimately, the ‘Yin’ and ‘Yang’ can symbolise any two polarized forces in nature. Taoists believe that humans often intervene in nature and upset the balance of Yin and Yang.

Fruit on offerings table in Taoist temple in Malacca, Malaysia with golden memorial tablets in background

Taoist believers think that human beings can enjoy eternal life and become Immortals. Taoism believes that the Tao possesses eternal life. The man who is able to obtain and keep the Tao can achieve longevity, which is called “virtue”. In Taoist opinions, virtue refers to obtaining or achieving the Tao. Taoism values life very much and pursues longevity, and Taoists believe that human beings can obtain the Tao through praying to spirits and cultivation, so that they could enjoy not only happiness in this world, but also return to the ultimate source and origin of the universe, share the same body with the Tao, enjoy the eternal physical life, ascend to heaven in the daytime, and stay in the immortal world forever.

Taoism has also been involved with funerals since the time of its formation and is a part of Chinese folklore. The Chinese are very serious about nourishing life and sending off the dead. The Confucians advocated being serious with death and reminiscing over the departed, which implies the idea of emphasising death and recalling ancestors. Such Confucian thought needs certain rituals for its expression and intensification. Confucian rites have strong rational connotations, but there are also religious ceremonies among the commoners and in upperclass society. Their main purpose is to secure peace for the souls of the deceased, and separate the living and the dead, so that the shadow of death will not linger among the living, in order to guarantee their safety. At the same time, ancient people also tried hard to help the souls of the dead to ascend to Heaven to join their ancestors. On a silk book excavated in the Mawangdui Han tomb buried at the time of emperor Wen of the Western Han dynasty, the woman who was the owner of the tomb was shown being guided across a bridge and accompanied to Heaven. One person is in front of her holding a plate with the golden elixir. It was evident that the contemporaries associated the ascending of the deceased's soul with the refined elixirs of the Magicians (predecessors of the Taoists). This became an important ideological basis to Taoist funerals.

Early Taoism was more active among the common masses, and taking part in their funerals was very natural. Relieving Rituals (magic rituals conducted for the dead at the tomb gate, aimed at separating the living people and ghosts and guarding the tomb), which were conducted at the gate of tombs, were very popular. They relieved deadly contagions (by protecting the living against the adversity and misfortune which cause death). The theme of filial piety was stressed in the later development of funerals. It emphasised that Taoist priests' magic could make the dead ascend to heaven quickly and let them leave the sufferings of the nether world. Such activities have long been popular customs among the masses. Nowadays, when somebody dies in a family, people employ Buddhists and Taoists to conduct rituals, have Water and Land Rituals, copy scriptures, and print Buddhist and Taoist images, in order to reduce the deceased's sins and demerits and allow them to ascend to heaven and enjoy happiness. If not, the dead will descend to hell.

Taoist funerals have a complete ritual. It is mixed with folklore when conducted among the masses. They are divided into a one-day Offering and a three-day Offering. For example, the one-day offering has fifteen stages to it including chanting, communicating with the spirits, incantations, sacrificing food for the lonely soul, offerings and reading memorials. The practice of these rituals among the masses changes in accordance with the financial ability of the hosts and the amount of time available. Connecting with folk culture, it also absorbs local cultures and customs in different areas. From the perspective of folk customs, Taoist funerals have the following stages:

Chanting scriptures: For Taoism, chanting scriptures is the foremost merit. Chanting sutras for the dead will release them of the sufferings in darkness.

Litanies and Water and Land Rituals: A Litany means a ritual conducted in front of gods for confessing one's sins and imploring forgiveness. Litany rites conducted in a funeral are to pardon the deceased's guilt and help them to ascend to heaven or have a good reincarnation. Water and Land rituals refer to enshrining and worshiping the spirits in the Heaven above, in the Earth in the middle and in the Water below. It covers the deceased's soul and hungry ghosts in the three worlds and six paths, and helps them to break away from suffering and bitterness, so it requires a large scale, many segments, and plenty of deliverance rites. Parts of the ritual can be conducted independently as small-scale rites.

A Tin Hau shrine in a Hong Kong village.

Lighting Lanterns and Disposing Water Lanterns: The Numinous Treasure Rituals usually involve lighting lanterns and candles. Taoism also has some independent lantern rituals. The Nine Darkness Lantern Ritual can make the divine light shine over Hell, so that the soul of the dead will be enlightened by the light and be guided to leave the realm of death. Besides lighting lanterns in rituals, an additional water lantern will also be used in the funeral. The legend goes that when people die, they need to pass a dark river. To avoid falling into it, it is necessary to light a lantern and illuminate the dark river. So people put paper lamps in rivers or lakes as symbols. The paper lamp is in the shape of a ship or lotus with a tile or wood board bottom, and candles burning in it. It will be put into water after chanting incantations and empowering magic. Generally speaking, if the water lamp floats a long time without turning, it shows that the magician is more powerful and that the dead will have a better fortune.

Feeding Hungry Ghosts: this is also called ‘hushi’ or ‘panshi’ in Chinese. Such rituals in Buddhism are called Rituals for Feeding the Hungry Ghosts. Some Buddhist scriptures tell people that those who have fallen into the path of a hungry ghost, do so as a result of their previous Dharmic actions. The throats of hungry ghosts are as small as a needle, so it is hard for them to drink even a drop of water. Whenever there is food in front of their month, a flame will spurt out automatically and burn the food. So they are eternally hungry and in suffering. Only magic power can make the flame die out and open their throat, and release them from such suffering. The Taoist master will also use his positive spirit and energy to refine the negativity of the dead and free them from spiritual suffering, so that they can ascend to Heaven as soon as possible. During the time of Refining, it is necessary to build a water pond and fire ‘zhao’ (a fire basin lit after the master gives magic power, which symbolises the fire god). Water is used for cleaning and fire for refining, so it is also called Refining and Deliverance through Water and Fire.

There are other rituals emphasising the suffering of the deceased's soul. They are given a general term: “giving free food”. They discard the typical Taoist Refining and Deliverance. These rituals are generally conducted for ghosts who haven't been relieved from the darkness during important festivals. The host mainly determines the conduct of these rituals, so they have a close relationship with folk customs, and have strong folk and local characters.

These rituals may vary in different places, but their purpose is the same, i.e. to practice filial piety, bring security to the family, and help people to get rid of the psychological fear of death.